a) Epigeal and hypogeal germination
Epigeal germination: Cotyledons rise above the soil (e.g., bean).
Hypogeal germination: Cotyledons remain underground (e.g., pea).
b) Asexual and sexual reproduction
Asexual reproduction: Involves one parent, no gamete formation, produces genetically identical offspring.
Sexual reproduction: Involves two parents, gamete formation, produces genetically diverse offspring.
c) Self-pollination and cross-pollination
Self-pollination: Pollen transfers within the same flower or plant.
Cross-pollination: Pollen transfers between different plants of the same species.
d) Binary fission and multiple fission
Binary fission: A single cell divides into two identical daughter cells (e.g., Amoeba).
Multiple fission: A single cell divides into many daughter cells (e.g., Plasmodium).
e) External fertilization and internal fertilization
External fertilization: Fertilization occurs outside the body (e.g., fish, amphibians).
Internal fertilization: Fertilization occurs inside the female body (e.g., mammals, birds).